Although Rome had won the Second Punic War, this conflict had caused immense losses in manpower and morale for Rome. The ghost of Carthage and Hannibal’s campaign in Italy haunted the Roman Republic for many years. To completely eliminate the threat from this Mediterranean superpower, Rome proactively launched the Third Punic War, determined to wipe Carthage off the map of the ancient world.
The Balance of Power
The Punic War began in 264 BC, at a time when Rome had never sent its legions beyond the Italian peninsula. In contrast, Carthage’s trade influence stretched from the Levantine coast to the Strait of Gibraltar, and even further if we believe the explorer Hanno’s reports on his journey along the West African coast. Carthage often mobilized enormous armies (according to the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, up to 300,000 men) to confront rival powers such as Syracuse in Sicily.
However, this was the story of the past. After the conclusion of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC), Carthage was but a shadow of its former self. Hannibal’s defeat at the Battle of Zama and the subsequent peace treaty stripped Carthage of all its overseas colonies and imposed a massive indemnity to be paid over the next 50 years.
Meanwhile, Rome rose to prominence. After their costly victory over Hannibal, Rome shifted eastward, achieving resounding victories over the Diadochi—the successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great. First, they subdued Macedonia under the leadership of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, the son of the consul who sacrificed himself at Cannae.
Next, they defeated the Seleucid Empire. The Battle of Magnesia in 188 BC confirmed the superiority of Roman legions over the traditional Macedonian phalanx formation. The Treaty of Apamea was signed shortly afterward, forcing the successor kingdoms of Alexander to withdraw from Europe and extending Rome’s political influence into Asia Minor (now Turkey).
In less than a century, the fate of the two Mediterranean superpowers had completely reversed. Rome, once constrained by hostile forces in central Italy, had now moved its legions deep into Syria. Meanwhile, Carthage, once the master of the “Middle Sea,” was now confined within the walls of a small peninsula in North Africa.
Carthage Must Be Destroyed
In 153 BC, Cato the Elder—a Roman statesman—was sent to mediate a dispute between the Carthaginians and King Massinissa of Numidia, an ally who had helped Rome in the final battle of the Second Punic War.
As a veteran who had witnessed the devastating losses under Hannibal’s command, Cato arrived in Carthage expecting to find a city in decline after two heavy defeats. But, to his surprise, he discovered a thriving and prosperous Carthage. By 151 BC, the Carthaginians had not only paid off their war indemnity to Rome but had also revived their trade and rebuilt their military.
Returning to Rome, Cato warned his fellow citizens about Carthage’s resurgence, and every speech he gave—no matter the subject—ended with his famous declaration: “Carthago delenda est” (Carthage must be destroyed).
Cato was not alone in his sentiments. During the Second Punic War, Hannibal caused the death of one in every five adult males in Italy. The painful aftermath of his campaign haunted the Romans for decades. Even after his death, Hannibal’s legacy remained an unshakable worry for Rome.
According to the terms of the 201 BC treaty, the Romans seized upon the conflict between Carthage and Numidia as a pretext to condemn their old enemy. Rome’s warlike attitude was not coincidental, especially since Carthage had just settled its war debts.
As was customary in Carthage, the generals involved in the conflict with Numidia were sentenced to death. However, this still did not appease the anger of the Romans. When a Roman delegation was sent to Carthage, they imposed harsh conditions to end the conflict, including forcing the Carthaginians to abandon their city. Knowing that Carthage would never agree to this, Rome was prepared for war. The fear of a resurgent Carthage was the primary motivator behind Rome’s determination to act, more so than any actual wrongdoing on Carthage’s part.
The Invasion of North Africa (149 BC)
The First Punic War primarily took place at sea, while the Second was decided by major land battles. In contrast, the Third Punic War was a long siege with little movement.
Carthage’s overseas empire had been stripped away. There was no longer a threat of invasion from Spain by land. The Carthaginian navy had been dismantled, and the famous Punic sails no longer appeared to harass Roman ships near the Italian coast. The army that Carthage could muster was only sufficient to defend the city, under the command of General Hasdrubal.
According to the Greek historian Appian of Alexandria, Rome sent an enormous expeditionary force to North Africa. He reported 80,000 soldiers transported on 150 ships, though this may have been exaggerated. Even if the actual number was half, it still represented a much larger force than the one commanded by Scipio Africanus at Zama during the Second Punic War. The Roman populace eagerly joined this campaign, eager to fulfill the mission of destroying Carthage.
The fate of Carthage depended entirely on its city walls. The city was protected by three strong defensive lines, with a main wall that was 30 feet (about 9 meters) wide and 60 feet (about 18 meters) high. This defensive line was not just a wall, but also a barracks capable of housing 20,000 soldiers, stables, and even war elephants.
The coastal wall connected to the famous circular harbor at the southeast corner of the city, once a symbol of Carthage’s naval might. Overlooking everything was Byrsa, Carthage’s most fortified stronghold, which, according to legend, was where the legendary Queen Dido chose to establish her kingdom.
The Siege of Carthage and the Rise of Scipio
Faced with constant harassment by Carthage’s cavalry and nimble troops, the Romans began to assault the city’s formidable walls. They built enormous siege engines, each requiring 6,000 men to operate, and filled surrounding ponds to construct assault ramps. In this life-and-death struggle, the Carthaginians launched counterattacks to destroy Rome’s siege machines.
The battles were fierce, but the brilliance of one military commander turned the tide. That commander was Scipio Aemilianus. The son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus—who had conquered Macedonia—and the grandson of the consul killed at Cannae, Scipio was adopted into the Scipio family, officially becoming the grandson of Scipio Africanus.
Thanks to his outstanding talent, Scipio quickly rose through the military ranks. The Lex Villia annalis, which stipulated the minimum age for high office, was even bypassed to allow Scipio to be elected consul in Rome.
Upon returning to Carthage in 147 BC, Scipio found Rome’s war effort at a standstill. The incompetence of the commanders and the limited experience of the soldiers had prolonged the conflict. Admiral Mancinus continued the blockade of the city but failed to make a breakthrough. When Scipio took command, he swiftly rallied the troops to prepare for a major assault.
Taking advantage of an abandoned watchtower, Scipio’s soldiers climbed the walls and captured part of the fortifications. They opened the city gates, allowing the Roman forces to pour into the city. However, darkness and unfamiliar terrain led Scipio to withdraw his forces to avoid a Carthaginian counterattack.
At the same time, General Hasdrubal, fearing Carthaginian soldiers might desert, led Roman prisoners onto the city walls and had them tortured to death in full view of the Roman army. This cruelty left a deep impression on Scipio—and he would never forget it.
The Final Journey of the Carthaginian Empire
Scipio understood that the siege would continue as long as Carthage maintained its connection to the sea via its famous harbor. Under constant bombardment from Carthaginian arrows and stones, the Romans tirelessly dug trenches and constructed earthworks around the city.
The narrow isthmus leading to the harbor and located near the city’s weakest wall was completely surrounded by Roman engineers’ works. A dam was built to block the harbor entrance, cutting off Carthage’s final supply route. This action was not only strategic but symbolic: Carthage was now cut off from its lifeblood—the sea, which had sustained its prosperity for over six centuries.
The people of Carthage descended into panic. During the dark of night, both men, women, and children labored relentlessly to dig a new route to the sea and build a temporary fleet. The next morning, the Romans were shocked to see a fleet of 50 Carthaginian warships emerging from the harbor. This was the last fleet the Carthaginian empire would ever send out to sea.
Although at a disadvantage, the Carthaginian ships fought bravely, showcasing their superior naval skills, constantly harassing the larger Roman vessels. For hours, the two sides were locked in a standoff. However, as the wreckage of destroyed ships began to accumulate, the Carthaginian ships were blocked from retreating back to port. With no other option, they tried to beach their ships, but many were rammed and sunk by the larger Roman vessels or smashed against the rocks along the shore.
Cut off completely from the sea, the people of Carthage were left to starve. But Scipio, with all his military genius, was not patient enough to wait for his old enemies to weaken slowly. He decided to deliver the final blow with his own strength.
The Final Assault
From his position on the newly constructed dam, the Romans used siege engines to attack Carthage’s seawall. However, the Carthaginians, though besieged, refused to surrender. Many swam across the waters at night, carrying unlit torches. They secretly approached the docks where the Romans had set up their siege machines. When they got close, they ignited their torches, revealing their positions in the darkness. Despite being shot down by arrows and javelins, these attackers succeeded in destroying the Roman siege machines.
Despite this temporary setback, Scipio personally led his cavalry in driving the Carthaginians back. After capturing the nearby town of Nepheris, Scipio prepared a plan to assault Byrsa, the ancient citadel of Carthage.
Abandoning the use of siege engines, the Romans proceeded to attack each district of the city. The six-story buildings were used as defensive positions, from which the Carthaginians threw stones and fired arrows at the Romans. In the fierce street battles, the Romans took control of each building one by one, using planks to bridge rooftops and move across different areas. Recalling Hasdrubal’s past brutality, Scipio ordered the remaining buildings to be set alight, killing those inside and turning the streets into ruins.
For six consecutive days, the city was set ablaze in this manner. From the remaining rubble, 50,000 men and women emerged, holding olive branches from the Temple of Aesculapius, begging for mercy from Scipio. He showed them mercy, but Hasdrubal and his family remained holed up in the temple. According to the historian Appian, Hasdrubal’s wife set fire to the temple and killed her children so they would not fall into Roman hands.
The End of the Old World
Carthage was plunged into chaos as Scipio allowed his soldiers to plunder the city, following the Roman tradition. As the Byrsa Hill and the famous Temple of Aesculapius were set ablaze, the Greek historian Polybius—a slave in the Aemilianus household—is said to have approached his master, who was gazing at the flames. Polybius asked the victorious general why he was crying. Scipio replied, quoting lines from Homer’s Iliad:
“One day will come when sacred Troy shall fall,
Priam and his people,
He whom the great king Priam rules, will be destroyed.”
Scipio did not cry for the Carthaginians. But as he witnessed the last remnants of a once mighty empire turn to ash, he could not help but feel anxious and fearful that one day, his beloved Rome might meet the same fate.
However, in the present, Rome was entering a new era. In the same year that Carthage fell (146 BC), Corinth—the last free city of the Achaean League—was also destroyed. After decades of indirect rule through puppet kings, Rome had wiped out all signs of Greek independence. Greece, the birthplace of democracy, was now completely subjugated under Roman rule.
For centuries, the rivalry between Carthage and the Greek world had shaped the central and western Mediterranean region. Now, both had bowed before the power of Rome. The Mediterranean Sea, once a crossroads of many cultures and languages, now quickly became the Roman Sea, or mare nostrum (“our sea”).
The Legacy of Carthage
Contrary to the legendary tales of Carthage’s fall, the fields were not salted as often claimed. The Romans were vengeful, but also pragmatic. Although most of Carthage’s traces, such as its literature, art, and architecture, were erased, Carthage still held a strategic position in the vast trade network. The complete destruction of its infrastructure would require a large investment from Rome to rebuild.
The new Roman city, built near the modern capital of Tunis, became the center of the Roman province of Africa. The agricultural system in the outskirts of Carthage, developed by the Carthaginians from the 5th century BC, continued to feed the growing Roman city as it increasingly relied on its provinces.
This province flourished, and North Africa became the birthplace of great generals, politicians, and thinkers. The future Roman emperor Septimius Severus was born in Leptis Magna (modern-day Libya). Two famous Christian thinkers, Tertullian and Saint Augustine, were born in Carthage and Numidia. Some archaeological evidence suggests that Carthaginian religious practices persisted into the Christian era, particularly in the desert regions of North Africa. However, the Carthaginian empire, as it had once been known, never rose again.
Nevertheless, their story is still told. In the 19th century, when Napoleon’s France and the British Empire were locked in fierce struggle, Napoleon likened the British to the “Carthaginians,” referring to the similarities in their reliance on naval power.
The people of Tunisia today also have not forgotten their history. If you visit a market in Tunisia, you might pay with a five-dinar note bearing the heroic yet tragic visage of Hannibal Barca. It’s a small reminder of the ancient past, easily overlooked by many. But what might have happened had Hannibal succeeded in his campaign?
The Punic Wars
A letter from the Italian mercenary group, the Mamertines, sent to both Rome and Carthage inadvertently drew both powers into a series of conflicts that spanned three wars and over a century.
A similarity between the First Punic War and World War I, more than two millennia later, is that both ended with a “Carthaginian peace.” This was a punitive peace with heavy financial terms that not only failed to prevent future conflict but in fact made it almost certain.
The Carthaginians never fully utilized their naval superiority to contend with Rome’s greater military force. In contrast, historian Lawrence James argues that the success of Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries was largely due to the strategy of “using naval power effectively” by William Pitt. Supported by the explosion of international trade, Britain squeezed out France’s overseas colonies and isolated France’s larger army on the continent, where Britain financed other nations to maintain the war on land.
The Romans, despite being “newcomers” in naval warfare, demonstrated a readiness to learn, adapt, and innovate. When the First Punic War broke out, they had no navy. But by the end of the war, Roman warships dominated the Mediterranean. When Hannibal defeated every army he faced, Fabius Maximus broke with tradition by waging a war of attrition, gaining valuable time for Rome.
In contrast, Carthage was torn apart by internal divisions. Carthaginian society was shattered by families competing for influence. Hannibal’s campaigns suffered from severe funding shortages, and many other unsuccessful commanders were executed by the Carthaginian state rather than being defeated by the Romans.
In the war, Carthage sought to preserve the status quo of trade, while Rome pursued total conquest. Ignoring ethical concerns, in this conflict, the stronger conviction won.
Conclusion
The Third Punic War (149-146 BC) was not only the conclusion to a century-long confrontation between Rome and Carthage, but also a significant turning point in ancient history. With the complete destruction of Carthage, Rome not only affirmed its absolute dominance in the Mediterranean but also opened a new era of imperial expansion. This war, from its deep-rooted causes to its tragic outcome, left many historical lessons about power, ambition, and devastation.
Through this article on Thefactsofwar, it is hoped that readers will gain a more comprehensive understanding of the Third Punic War—its historical context, military strategies, and the legacy left by Carthage. At the same time, the article seeks to spark interest in the valuable historical lessons from an event that had a profound influence on the course of human history.
Translated by: Minh Tuan
Source: thecollector.com – The Third Punic War: Carthage Must Be Destroyed
