In the late 19th century, the Russo Turkish War was Russia’s attempt to assert dominance, capture assets from Turkey, and free strategic allies from the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
In the latter half of the 19th century, Russia’s military prestige had suffered greatly after the Crimean War, but this did not last long. Russia quickly sought an opportunity for a new conflict with the Ottoman Empire to strengthen regional security, particularly around the Black Sea, which was vital for Russia’s need for warm-water ports.
Russia found its pretext in the Ottoman territories of Eastern Europe, where Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro began revolts against Ottoman rule.
Under the guise of protecting and liberating these allies from Turkish oppression, Russia waged war. This conflict—known as the tenth Russo-Turkish War—was not only the final but also the most significant in a series of clashes between the two empires. It was also one of the bloodiest wars.
History of Conflict and Escalating Tensions
Russia and Turkey had fought numerous wars over more than three centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 was the tenth conflict between the two nations, excluding the Crimean War, when the Ottoman Empire allied with Britain and France against Russia.
The 1877–1878 war is widely regarded as the largest and most significant clash between Russia and Turkey, though this remains debated. When people refer to the “Russo-Turkish War,” they typically mean this conflict.
The first major clash between the two nations was the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) under Empress Catherine the Great. The outcome expanded Russian territory and, more importantly, secured Russia’s right to protect Christians within the Ottoman Empire.
In the decades leading up to the war, tensions between Muslim and Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire intensified. Despite Ottoman government efforts to eliminate legal inequalities, social hostility persisted, fueled by nationalist movements in conquered territories. Uprisings in Lebanon and Crete destabilized Ottoman authority and forced Ottoman society to confront the complexity of its religious composition.
Russia faced similar issues. Religious tensions within the Russian Empire spilled over into the Ottoman realm. Amid financial struggles, the Ottomans also had to absorb 600,000 Circassian Muslims expelled from Russia, adding to their burden.
Beyond religion and ethnicity, the Crimean War defeat forced Russia to dismantle its Black Sea Fleet. Though territorial losses were minimal, Russia’s imperial prestige was severely damaged, driving a desire for revenge. The Ottoman Empire became an easy target for Russia to address this.
Russia’s pretext emerged from the Balkan crisis (1875–1876), still under Ottoman control. Russia saw an opportunity to encourage rebellion under the banner of aiding Christians against Muslim rule. This crisis also triggered ethnic cleansing, with hundreds of thousands of Muslims killed or displaced amid a surge of nationalist fervor in the region.
Compounding the difficulties, the Ottoman Empire faced a severe drought in Anatolia in 1873, followed by floods in 1874. Famine spread, forcing the empire to raise taxes in distant provinces. This sparked rebellions in Albania, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria.
The Ottoman response to the Bulgarian uprising was particularly brutal. Estimates suggest 30,000 to 100,000 Bulgarians were massacred. These atrocities drew fierce international condemnation, with Russia voicing the strongest opposition.
On June 30, 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the weakening Ottoman Empire. Russia supported Serbia with volunteers, but the Serbian forces lacked equipment and training. Still, they repelled Ottoman attacks into Serbian territory, securing formal independence. However, the war drained Serbia’s fighting capacity, necessitating either a peace treaty or intervention from a powerful ally.
After failed reconciliation attempts, Russia finally found its justification to declare war and formally launch the conflict with the Ottoman Empire.
War Breaks Out
On April 24, 1877, Russia officially declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Russian army prepared to attack Turkish positions via Romania, then a rebellious province under Ottoman rule. On May 10, Romania declared independence.
Russia deployed about 300,000 troops in the Balkans, while Turkey had 200,000. Though outnumbered, Turkey held an advantage with fortified defensive positions.
Both sides made early mistakes. Turkey assumed Russia would avoid bold campaigns and rely on safer strategies. Meanwhile, Russia crossed the Danube with just 185,000 troops, insufficient to challenge Turkey’s defenses.
1877
After crossing the Danube and capturing Nikopol, Russia faced its first real test in attacking the fortified city of Pleven (Plevna). However, a swift victory was halted by the staunch Ottoman defense under Osman Nuri Pasha. This dealt a severe morale blow to Russia, forcing a prolonged siege to take the city.
With Romanian aid, Pleven fell on December 10, 1877, but at a steep cost to Russia: 50,000 casualties, dead and wounded. The battle nearly exhausted Russia’s campaign, requiring an additional 100,000 troops to reinforce the Balkans. The Ottomans also suffered heavily, with tens of thousands captured, many dying in harsh weather during transport to captivity.
Meanwhile, in the Caucasus, a 50,000-strong Russian force led by four Armenian generals achieved notable successes. They captured Bayazid on April 27 and Ardahan by May 17. Building on this, they besieged Kars but were repelled. After reinforcements, Russia resumed the attack and took Kars on November 18.
After Pleven’s fall, Serbia re-entered the war against the Ottomans, launching a campaign in southeastern Serbia, capturing four cities and pushing Ottoman forces eastward.
The Pleven victory also freed up forces for Russia to secure the vital Shipka Pass in Bulgaria. Four battles occurred there during the war. On July 17–18, Russian and Bulgarian forces attacked to seize the pass from the Ottomans. After repelling initial assaults, the Ottomans found their position indefensible and withdrew, leaving Shipka Pass to Russia. Russia quickly fortified it for a potential counterattack.
In late August, the Ottomans launched a fierce counterattack. For them, Shipka Pass was a key supply route through the mountains to relieve Pleven; for Russia, holding it secured northern Bulgaria. Under General Stoletov, Russian troops fought fiercely, using rocks when ammo ran out. Ottoman forces under Suleiman Pasha eventually retreated.
In September, Suleiman Pasha mounted another attack, but Russia, now led by General Fyodor Radetzky with reinforcements, again defeated the Ottomans.
1878: War’s End
After Pleven’s fall and much of the Ottoman army surrendered, the situation became dire for Turkey. Russia and its allies freed 65,000 troops and could move almost unopposed.
A final Ottoman attempt to retake Shipka Pass in January failed, and Russia swiftly campaigned to end the war. A large-scale operation under Marshal Gourko secured all Stara Planina mountain passes.
After fully securing Shipka Pass, Russia unexpectedly crossed a treacherous part of the range in harsh winter conditions. They defeated a smaller Ottoman force led by British officer Valentine Baker at Tashkessen on December 31, then captured Sofia, Bulgaria’s capital.
From this point, Ottoman resistance was ineffective, and Russia gained a position to potentially advance on Constantinople. Turkey requested a ceasefire on January 31, but Russia continued military actions while weighing options.
In the Caucasus, Russia captured the strategic fortress town of Erzurum, solidifying their position there.
Under British pressure, Russia accepted a peace deal, officially ending the war.
Aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War
The war was a complete defeat for Turkey. After five centuries of Ottoman rule, Bulgaria emerged as a principality, nominally under Ottoman control but effectively autonomous. Technically a vassal state until 1908, it then declared the Kingdom of Bulgaria. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro also gained independence from Ottoman rule.
In the Caucasus, Russia acquired several provinces from Turkey, later annexed into the Kars Oblast.
The war’s most horrific outcome was its scale of casualties and ethnic cleansing. Both sides committed bloody massacres. Tens of thousands of Christians were killed, notably in the civilian massacre at Stara Zagora by forces under Suleiman Pasha.
Yet the greatest toll fell on Ottoman Muslims, slaughtered by Russia and its allies. Soldiers and civilians alike participated in ethnic purges to erase Ottoman influence. Estimates suggest over 400,000 Ottoman Muslims were killed.
The Russo-Turkish War began as a risky gamble but ended in total victory for Russia, closing another chapter in the Ottoman Empire’s long decline.
As with all wars, the consequences for civilians were misery, disaster, and death, as nationalism and imperial ambition crushed innocent lives.
Conclusion
The Russo-Turkish War was not just a bloody clash between two major empires in the 19th century but also a pivotal turning point in the history of the Balkans and Caucasus. It shook the Ottoman Empire’s standing, bringing independence to nations like Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria, but at the cost of horrific casualties and ethnic cleansing.
Through this article, we hope Thefactsofwar has shed light on the causes, developments, and consequences of the Russo-Turkish War. These historical events reflect imperial ambitions and religious conflicts while serving as a reminder of the suffering war inflicts on the innocent. We hope lessons from the past will promote the value of peace and understanding among nations in the future.
Translated by: Minh Tuan
Source: thecollector.com – The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (History & Aftermath)
