The Rhodesian Bush War, also known as the Zimbabwe Liberation War, lasted for fifteen years in the harsh and hot conditions of the African bush. The war saw three factions competing fiercely to gain control in an environment that was unforgiving and relentless.
Like many conflicts in 20th-century Africa, this war stemmed from efforts to free the region from colonial rule and assert the self-determination and sovereignty of the indigenous people.
Although Britain relinquished control over the colony of Southern Rhodesia, instead of granting the black population the power to establish a majority government, the white minority government in Salisbury declared full independence and refused to allow true democratic processes. This led to a prolonged and bloody war lasting many years.
Factions in the Rhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian government, led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, sought to protect the rights of the white minority, while the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and its armed wing, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), were determined to gain control. Facing both of these factions was the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), which adhered to Marxist-Leninist principles, along with its armed wing, the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA).
Although both ZANU and ZAPU shared the common goal of gaining majority rule, they were ideologically distinct. ZANU, which emphasized guerrilla tactics, followed Maoist ideology and received aid from China, while ZAPU favored conventional warfare and was supported by the Soviet Union.
Rex Nhongo, a commander trained by both the Soviet Union and China, once commented on the ideological differences:
“In the Soviet Union, they told us that the decisive factor in war was weapons. When I went to Itumbi, where the Chinese instructors were, they told me that the decisive factor was people.”
Nevertheless, these independence movements cooperated nominally in order to oust the white minority government. They received support from armed groups in neighboring countries, such as Frelimo in Mozambique and the African National Congress (ANC) of Nelson Mandela, along with its armed wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe, which was fighting against the apartheid government in South Africa.
Despite Southern Rhodesia’s 96% black population and the clear determination of the independence movements to fight, in November 1965, Ian Smith and the Rhodesian government signed the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). At the time, the white population was only around 230,000 out of a total population of 4.2 million.
This declaration was a direct challenge to Britain’s decolonization efforts, which had stated that “there would be no independence without majority rule.” As a result, the Rhodesian state was not recognized as a legitimate nation on the international stage, and most of the international community imposed sanctions on Rhodesia.
However, Rhodesia still received significant support from South Africa and Portugal, the latter of which still controlled Angola and Mozambique and was embroiled in conflicts against liberation forces.
With a small population, the Rhodesian security forces had to undergo extensive training and were regarded as one of the most effective fighting forces in the world at the time.
The Early Stages of the Rhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian Bush War is believed to have begun on July 4, 1964, when ZANU forces attacked a white-owned farm, killing farmer Pieter Oberholzer. This event led to the government arresting and imprisoning many important leaders of ZANU and ZAPU, resulting in a strong military response. ZANLA forces, based in Mozambique and Zambia, began conducting small-scale guerrilla campaigns targeting Rhodesian assets.
This situation continued until the signing of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), which led to an increase in attacks by ZANLA. The first major battle in the war took place in the town of Sinoia, in the north-central part of Rhodesia. A group of seven ZANLA guerrillas was ambushed by 40 members of the Rhodesian English-speaking Police Force, supported by four helicopters. All seven ZANLA guerrillas were killed in this clash.
At this stage, the war remained low in intensity and mostly centered in northern Rhodesia. Portuguese control of Mozambique ensured that the entire eastern border was unaffected.
However, it was clear that this conflict would continue for many years, and the Rhodesian government increased its efforts by expanding military and air force operations. Typically, soldiers operated in small groups on counter-insurgency missions, with a high level of training.
With clashes along the northern border, Rhodesian forces took the initiative, seeking out and attacking small guerrilla groups. Meanwhile, the Rhodesian Special Air Service (SAS) and the Selous Scouts carried out cross-border raids into neighboring countries to destroy guerrilla camps and operating bases.
The Second Phase of the Rhodesian Bush War
By the early 1970s, the situation began to shift significantly. Guerrilla attacks increased both in intensity and frequency, forcing the Rhodesian government to extend the length of military service to one year for white men. The draft age was also raised to 50, and no 17-year-old young man was allowed to leave the country. The manpower shortage became a serious issue for the Rhodesian armed forces.
By 1974, it became clear that Portugal would grant independence to its African colonies. This was a highly alarming development for Rhodesia, not only because Portugal’s support for the white minority government was at risk of ending, but also because Portugal’s Mozambique territory constituted a large portion of Rhodesia’s border.
When Portugal no longer protected this region, Mozambique would become the primary base for nationalist attacks. Moreover, both Mozambique and Angola would offer both political and military support to nationalist groups seeking to end white minority rule.
On June 25, 1975, the socialist independence movement, Frelimo, took power in Mozambique. The Rhodesian government could do nothing to prevent the entire border with Mozambique from becoming a battlefield. For many, this was a clear indication that white minority rule could not last forever.
Meanwhile, more and more left-wing countries around the world provided military training for ZANLA and ZIPRA forces, including Ethiopia, Yugoslavia, Romania, Cuba, the Soviet Union, and China.
As South Africa faced increasing difficulties in conducting its Border War, providing support to Rhodesia was no longer a top priority. Military support from South Africa gradually dwindled, including the military personnel who had assisted Rhodesia in securing its borders.
South Africa also disagreed with the Rhodesian government’s handling of the conflict, concerned that the growing number of ZANLA casualties could draw increased attention from Cuba and the Soviet Union, potentially leading to military deployments from these powers in response.
Despite the grim situation, Ian Smith’s government continued to attempt to consolidate power and took desperate measures to ensure survival. Military service was extended from 12 to 18 months, and the Rhodesian government sought to offset manpower shortages by hiring black soldiers and calling for foreign volunteers.
Turning the Tide
Over time, the Rhodesian government’s measures proved insufficient. The government tried to comfort itself by measuring success by the number of enemy casualties, but in reality, this did not represent progress towards an eventual victory.
ZANLA forces operated strongly in the east, while ZIPRA applied pressure from the west. Rhodesian security forces could not control the large number of insurgents, and guerrilla attacks became more frequent.
Rhodesian cross-border attacks yielded some results but were insufficient to halt the nationalist advance. International pressure grew as the Rhodesian government resorted to more brutal tactics, such as the attack on Nyadzonya in Mozambique.
During this operation, Rhodesian forces, disguised as FRELIMO soldiers (a violation of the laws of war), entered a village with a ZANLA presence and began indiscriminately killing. The “Eland” operation led to the deaths of 1,028 ZANLA fighters with no casualties from Rhodesian forces.
Another event in 1977, called Operation Dingo, saw Rhodesian forces attacking ZANLA bases at Chimoio and Tembue in Mozambique. This four-day operation was believed to have killed 1,200 ZANLA fighters and numerous civilians while continuing to attract international condemnation. Meanwhile, Rhodesian forces lost only two soldiers, with eight wounded.
Although these operations seemed to be effective in the short term and gave a misleading impression of who was winning, they ultimately led to greater unity among the African nationalist movements to intensify their efforts to overthrow Ian Smith’s government.
Looking for a Way Out
Gradually, the Rhodesian government began to seek a way out of the stalemate and began negotiating with less extreme opposition factions. An opportunity arose when the moderate faction of ZANU and proposals from the United African National Council (UANC), a smaller independent group led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, offered a solution.
In 1976, a split occurred within ZANU. After the assassination of ZANU leader Herbert Chitepo, a power struggle took place, and Ndabaningi Sithole became the leader of the party. However, Sithole’s moderate stance and desire to reach peace with the Rhodesian government earned him significant opposition from ZANU and ZAPU.
Finally, under pressure from the international community, including the British government and the United Nations, the Rhodesian government agreed to sit down and talk.
However, this agreement was completely rejected by the guerrilla forces, as they would only accept complete victory and absolute black rule. The guerrilla forces of ZANLA and ZIPRA continued to fight, with increasing levels of brutality as victory was within reach. Indiscriminate killings and terrorist attacks on civilians made the war even more brutal. The Rhodesian forces now became a “middle party” caught between attacks from both sides.
Meanwhile, ZANLA and ZIPRA also began to target each other, as each side wanted to gain maximum control before the Smith regime surrendered. A civil war between ZIPRA and ZANLA threatened to engulf the entire country, forcing the Rhodesian security forces to try to recruit black Rhodesians into the army, but this call was largely ignored by the population.
A new government was formed with Abel Muzorewa at its head, but the agreement that led to this transition did not include elements of ZANU or ZAPU, leaving the government unrecognized by the international community.
Majority rule
As the situation of the Rhodesian-Zimbabwean state collapsed, a new agreement was sought to resolve the conflict. This agreement was called the Lancaster House Agreement, in which the country was temporarily returned under British rule with the goal of holding democratic elections
These elections took place from February 14 to March 4, 1980, and resulted in a resounding victory for ZANU under the leadership of Robert Mugabe. Mugabe became Prime Minister, while Canaan Banana held the position of President. However, the position of President was largely ceremonial, with most of the power residing in the Prime Minister.
The Rhodesian Bush War, like many other wars in Africa, stemmed from colonial legacies. Over the course of 15 years, the war escalated to the point where the insurgent forces were beyond control.
And like all other colonial conflicts in Africa, the war proved that minority rule cannot be sustained forever. A decade later, the white minority in South Africa was also forced to make similar compromises.
Conclusion
The Rhodesian Bush War, also known as the Zimbabwe War of Liberation, was a conflict that lasted for 15 years, reflecting the profound consequences of colonialism and the desire for freedom of the native African people. The war was not only a confrontation between factions with different ideologies and goals, but also a symbol of the continuous struggle against oppression and injustice.
Hopefully through this article, Thefactsofwar has provided you with a comprehensive and comprehensive view of the Rhodesian Bush War – from its causes, developments to its profound political and social consequences. The war not only leaves a lesson about the power of the spirit of struggle for self-determination but also reminds us of the value of peace, justice and human rights in a volatile historical context.
Translated by: Minh Tuan
Source: thecollector.com – What Was the Rhodesian Bush War?
