In 259 BCE, “China” as a unified nation had not yet appeared. There was no common concept of “the Chinese people,” no empire, and certainly no emperor ruling over the entire land. At that time, there were only a collection of vassal states constantly vying for power around the Yellow River basin.
In the same year, Ying Zheng – who would later become Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China – was born. So how did a seemingly ordinary figure become one of the most influential kings in human history? And how did he unite the vassal states to realize the dream of a unified China?
Before Unified China: The Warring States Period
The Warring States Period, as we know it today, was an era filled with bloody and brutal military conflicts that lasted for over two centuries. This chaotic period only came to an end when the victorious Qin state defeated the other six vassal states, unified the territories, and laid the foundation for the Qin dynasty, from which the name “China” in English was derived.
Before becoming the first emperor of China, Ying Zheng was just a prince from the remote, harsh borderlands of the Warring States period. His homeland, the Qin state, was often seen as less civilized compared to other states. Qin was located in the western region, geographically isolated, and was thought to have more in common with the nomadic tribes living along the western frontier. The Qin state frequently had to confront these tribes to protect its territory.
In fact, a prince from the neighboring state of Wei once mocked Qin as a “rough, crude land” that knew nothing about “morality and rites.” So how did Ying Zheng, a prince born in such a despised land, become the first emperor to unify China? To answer this question, we need to turn back a century to the core philosophy that shaped the strength of the Qin state.
Legalism and the Formation of the Qin State
To understand what made the Qin state different from its rivals, we must first explore the core ideology that shaped their culture and success. Qin Shi Huang’s success in unifying the Warring States largely stemmed from the foundation of Legalism. The political and social system, combined with the powerful military culture of the Qin state, created the conditions for one of their kings to conquer neighboring states.
When Ying Zheng ascended to the throne of the Qin state in 246 BCE, the country had long established a ruthless, autocratic system that prioritized military values above all else. These values were imposed through the reforms of Shang Yang, who pursued a cold, pragmatic approach. Shang Yang rejected Confucian principles such as benevolence, rituals, and fairness, which were valued by other states. Instead, he laid the foundation for a single principle he recognized: the concentration of state power, by any means necessary.
Under the influence of Shang Yang, the Qin state “hardened” itself. Like a “Sparta” of China, every step they took was calculated to ensure a wealthier state, more efficient agriculture, and a stronger military. Although criticized by other states as uncivilized, this “inferiority” turned out to be a significant advantage.
Uninfluenced by the arts, rituals, or formalities, the Qin state focused all its efforts on building military strength. They established a new aristocratic system: a meritocracy, where officials were rewarded based on military achievements, rather than the traditional system based on inherited power and influence.
The social status of each individual was entirely reflective of their military achievements. Military service was mandatory for all citizens. Men were required to enlist, while women also had to participate in defense when a town or city was attacked. The superior military system and the ability to mobilize the population of Qin were clearly decisive factors in their conquest of other states.
At the same time, the Legalist system with its strict rewards and punishments tightened the state’s control over the people of Qin. Shang Yang believed that the only way to govern was by instilling fear in the people: using rewards to entice and punishments to deter. The punishments were incredibly harsh. According to Han Feizi, a disciple of Shang Yang, it was recorded: “Anyone who does not report a crime will be cut in half at the waist.” This was the severity of Qin law – no tolerance, even for the innocent, simply for not reporting a crime.
Though harsh, this legal system appeared to be effective. By the 3rd century BCE, the people of Qin were famous for strictly adhering to the law (not surprisingly, given the severe punishments). Agricultural output increased, and direct tax revenues brought significant income to the state.
This solid foundation in social, economic, and agricultural systems helped the Qin state build a superior military. As Lord Wu of Wei once acknowledged: “The nature of Qin is very strong. Their government is strict. Rewards and punishments are very clear. The people do not submit.” Other states only knew a small part of Qin’s strength, but they would soon face the full force of it.
Becoming Qin Shi Huang: The Unification of China
In 230 BCE, Ying Zheng officially ascended to the throne, and in the following decade, he deployed the full military strength of the Qin state to conquer the remaining independent states. One by one, the Warring States fell into the hands of the Qin.
With the strong support of Prime Minister Li Si and General Meng Tian, the first emperor of China launched a series of devastating attacks on rival kingdoms. Like a silkworm consuming mulberry leaves, Qin engulfed the states of Han, Zhao, Wei, Yan, Chu, and Qi, uniting these kingdoms and their populations under a single empire, laying the foundation for the Qin dynasty.
By 221 BCE, Ying Zheng had conquered all territories from the eastern coast of China to the Lintao region in the west, from the Yalu River in the north to the Lang Son mountain range in the south, even extending into what is now present-day Vietnam.
China was born in its first form, along with the emergence of its first emperor. Ying Zheng officially abandoned his old name and title, while linking his new dynasty to the legends of ancient kings in Chinese history. He gave himself a new title: Qin Shi Huang.
This title was created from elements of legend. The character “Hoàng” was taken from the title of mythological emperors, and “Đế” symbolized sage kings. The title “Emperor” was designed to reflect his supreme power and unparalleled achievements. The prefix “Qin” emphasized his origins from the homeland that he elevated to unprecedented greatness, and the character “Shi,” meaning “first,” affirmed the establishment of a new empire and a dynasty that he hoped (though it was not realized) would endure forever
Building a nation
Proclaiming himself the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang ended over a century of bloody military conflict. The story doesn’t end here; uniting and ruling a collection of separate and rival states was no easy task. The great challenge for the new emperor, along with his mission to establish a unified China, had just begun. Qin Shi Huang embarked on the task of transforming a fragmented collection of former enemy states into a single unified nation. This required a series of changes to the legal system and hierarchical structure, as well as innovations and standardizations, such as implementing a single currency, unified measurements, and a common writing system.
To better control the vast territory he had just conquered and maintain an efficient system of transportation and communication, Qin Shi Huang launched a massive project to build a network of roads across the empire. The first section, the “Expressway” (chidao), was constructed in 220 BCE, stretching eastward from the capital, Xianyang. The second section, the “Straight Road” (zhidao), focused on the western region, primarily to protect the empire’s western borders from invasions by the nomadic Xiongnu, who frequently attacked the frontier areas.
This road network not only enhanced the ability to protect, transport, and communicate but also allowed the military to move swiftly in response to enemies in the north and west. In 215 BCE, Qin Shi Huang ordered 300,000 soldiers to march north to the steppes, launching an attack on the Xiongnu tribes, forcing them to retreat from the grasslands south of the Yellow River. At the same time, he seized the opportunity to strengthen the northern borders of the empire, constructing one of the most famous defensive structures in human history: the Great Wall of China.
Not only physical borders, but also ideological boundaries needed to be established and maintained. Officials under Qin Shi Huang were tasked with enforcing and disseminating a strict code of laws designed to unify the empire and maintain order. These laws covered all areas, from protecting the imperial property to regulating the use of lubricants for chariots. Any deviation from these regulations was met with severe punishment.
However, the most controversial measure of Qin Shi Huang was his attempt to control thought, in line with Legalist ideology. Following the advice of Prime Minister Li Si, he ordered the burning of all books related to literature, keeping only a few works on agriculture and medicine. This mass book burning was aimed at stripping the people of “excessive” knowledge and preventing philosophies that could threaten the Legalist regime.
Many scholars opposed this policy, speaking out against the government and calling for an end to the ideological dictatorship. Soon after, any form of criticism of the government was considered a crime and was met with severe punishment. No fewer than 460 scholars were executed by being buried alive for daring to speak out against the regime, demonstrating the brutality of Qin Shi Huang’s government in enforcing absolute power.
Through sweeping and harsh reforms, Qin Shi Huang laid the foundation for a powerful empire, but at the same time, he created a controversial legacy in Chinese history.
The legacy of Qin Shi Huang
Despite the controversy and criticism due to his brutality, Qin Shi Huang played an essential role in shaping China. Without the “iron fist” leadership of the first emperor, modern China might never have existed. It was his ruthless pragmatism, Machiavellian determination, and unwavering vision for a unified China that laid the foundation for one of the most powerful nations in the world.
The legacy left by Qin Shi Huang is the concept of centralized power, a principle that every subsequent Chinese government, whether feudal, republican, during Mao Zedong’s era, or post-Mao, has inherited. He shaped the idea that supreme power must originate from a single center, strong enough to govern the entire territory, making the unification of China a reality.
Although the Qin dynasty lasted only four years after Qin Shi Huang’s death, his legacy has endured for over 2,000 years and continues to live on today, in the form of a nation bearing the very name he established: China.
Conclusion
Qin Shi Huang was not only the unifier of China but also a symbol of decisiveness and absolute power. From ending centuries of conflict during the Warring States period, to constructing a solid network of transportation and defense, and implementing reforms in law and culture, he laid the foundation for a unified and powerful China. However, the ruthlessness in his governance also made this legacy a highly controversial chapter in history.
Through the article from Thefactsofwar, I hope you have gained a deeper insight into the vision, determination, and revolutionary reforms of Qin Shi Huang. His achievements not only shaped the history of China but also left valuable lessons on how to build and maintain a nation. Let’s continue exploring more fascinating stories about history and great figures with Thefactsofwar!
Translated by Minh Tuấn
Source: thecollector.com – Qin Shi Huangdi: The Man Who Gave His Name to China
