The Hundred Years’ War, a prolonged Anglo-French conflict spanning the 14th and 15th centuries, was a war of succession that reshaped medieval warfare, the feudal system, and European history. This series of military campaigns between the English monarchy and French monarchy involved territorial disputes, political rivalry, and chivalric code clashes, leading to significant historical transformation. As a historical research expert, I’ll provide a detailed explanatory analysis of this landmark struggle, incorporating its timeline, causes, territorial changes, and technological advancements.
This article explores the English invasions of France, French nationalism’s rise, and the war’s role as a catalyst for military strategy innovations like longbow tactics and knightly combat. From Edward III’s claims to Joan of Arc’s heroism, the conflict pitted the House of Plantagenet against the House of Valois, with battles like Agincourt and Crécy defining its legacy. In the broader scope of medieval European conflicts, the Hundred Years’ War exemplified siege warfare, 14th-century warfare’s brutality, and the political consequences that influenced the continent’s future, including the Black Death’s impact and the end of chivalric dominance.
The war’s narrative is one of English military campaigns in Normandy and Aquitaine, Anglo-Saxon English forces clashing with French knights, and the eventual French territorial recovery. Its significance lies in fostering English and French national identities, with the Treaty of Troyes as a brief English high point and the Siege of Orléans as France’s resurgence. The war’s legacy includes post-war France’s unification and England’s shift from continental ambitions, marking a turning point in medieval monarchy disputes.
When Was the Hundred Years’ War?
The Hundred Years’ War lasted from 1337 to 1453, spanning 116 years of intermittent conflict between England and France, though active fighting occurred in phases separated by truces. By convention, it began on May 24, 1337, when French King Philip VI confiscated the Duchy of Guyenne (Aquitaine) from English King Edward III, who responded by claiming the French throne. The war is divided into three main phases: the Edwardian phase (1337–1360), the Caroline phase (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian phase (1415–1453), with periods of peace like the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360.
The conflict’s extended duration was due to its nature as a series of campaigns rather than continuous war, influenced by factors like the Black Death (1347–1351), which killed 30–50% of Europe’s population and halted hostilities. Key dates include Edward III’s invasion in 1346, Henry V’s Agincourt triumph in 1415, Joan of Arc’s role in lifting the Siege of Orléans in 1429, and the final French victory at Castillon in 1453, which ended English continental holdings except Calais (lost in 1558). This era in European history reflected the transition from feudal levies to professional armies, with weather often playing a role—rainy conditions at Crécy and Agincourt favored English longbows by miring French cavalry.
The war’s timeline aligns with broader medieval developments, such as the Avignon Papacy and the rise of nationalism, making it a cornerstone of 14th-century political crisis and historical transformation.
What Caused the Hundred Years’ War?
The Hundred Years’ War was caused by a complex mix of dynastic, territorial, and economic factors rooted in the Anglo-French rivalry. At its core was a succession crisis: when French King Charles IV died in 1328 without a male heir, Edward III of England claimed the throne through his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. However, the French nobility invoked Salic law, barring inheritance through females, crowning Philip VI of Valois instead, igniting the war of succession.
Territorial disputes exacerbated tensions: England held extensive lands in France, including Aquitaine (Guyenne) and Gascony, remnants of the Angevin Empire, which French kings sought to reclaim. Economic conflicts over wool trade and control of the English Channel fueled animosity, with English invasions often aimed at protecting these holdings. Political rivalry played a role: France supported Scotland against England (Auld Alliance), while England allied with Flanders to counter French influence.
Diplomatic tensions mounted with Philip VI’s confiscation of Aquitaine in 1337, prompting Edward III to renounce homage and declare war. Nationalism emerged: English claims fostered anti-French sentiment, while French resistance built national identity. The Black Death later prolonged the war by disrupting societies. Overall, the causes reflect medieval monarchy disputes, with Edward III’s ambitions clashing with Philip VI’s consolidation efforts, setting the stage for a century of conflict.
Hundred Years’ War Map
A Hundred Years’ War map is crucial for visualizing the territorial disputes and military campaigns that defined the Anglo-French conflict. Historical maps, such as animated versions from Wikipedia or Omniatlas, depict France and England, with focus on contested regions like Normandy, Aquitaine, and Gascony.
Key features include:
- Geographical Layout: France as the central landmass, with England across the Channel. Shaded areas show English holdings: before 1337, large swaths of southwestern France (Aquitaine, Gascony) and northern Ponthieu; after peaks like 1429, England controlled Normandy, Maine, and Paris region; by 1453, only Calais remained.
- English Invasions Paths: Arrows illustrate major campaigns: Edward III’s 1346 chevauchée to Crécy, Black Prince’s 1355–1356 raids to Poitiers, Henry V’s 1415 landing at Harfleur to Agincourt, and 1417–1429 conquests reaching Orléans.
- French Recovery Positions: Blue lines mark French counteroffensives: Joan of Arc’s 1429 relief of Orléans, pushing to Reims; Charles VII’s 1449–1453 reconquest of Normandy and Guyenne, ending at Castillon.
- Battle Phases: Color-coded zones for phases: Edwardian (1337–1360) with naval Sluys (1340), land Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356); Caroline (1369–1389) with French gains; Lancastrian (1415–1453) with Agincourt (1415), Orléans (1429), Patay (1429), Formigny (1450), Castillon (1453).
- Strategic Features: Channel crossings from Calais, rivers like Seine and Loire as barriers. Insets detail battles like Agincourt’s muddy fields.
Maps from HistoryMaps or Reddit’s interactive versions show territorial changes: England started with ~30% of France, peaked at 50% in 1429, ended with none by 1453. These visualizations highlight English claims to France and the war’s back-and-forth nature.
Hundred Years’ War Timeline: Major Events and Phases
The Hundred Years’ War timeline spans 1337–1453, divided into phases with key battles and truces. Here’s a detailed chronology based on historical records:
- 1328: Charles IV of France dies without heir, sparking a succession crisis; Philip VI (Valois) crowned, but Edward III (Plantagenet) claims the throne through mother.
- 1337: War begins with Philip VI confiscating Aquitaine; Edward III renounces homage.
- 1340: Naval Battle of Sluys: English destroy French fleet, gaining Channel control.
- 1346: Battle of Crécy: Edward III defeated Philip VI, longbows decimate French knights.
- 1347–1351: Black Death halts major operations, killing 30–50% of Europe.
- 1356: Battle of Poitiers: Black Prince captures John II, leading to Treaty of Brétigny (1360), ceding territories to England.
- 1369: War resumes under Charles V, French reconquest begins.
- 1415: Henry V invades; Battle of Agincourt: English longbows triumph, leading to Treaty of Troyes (1420), Henry heir to French throne.
- 1429: Joan of Arc lifts Siege of Orléans; French momentum shifts.
- 1435: Treaty of Arras: Burgundy allies with France.
- 1450: Battle of Formigny: French artillery crushes English.
- 1453: Battle of Castillon: French cannon end English hopes; war concludes, England loses all but Calais.
This timeline reflects the war’s intermittent nature, with truces like 1360–1369 and 1389–1415, influenced by plagues, deaths (Edward III 1377, Henry V 1422), and shifting alliances.
England’s Territories in France Before and After Hundred Years’ War
Before the Hundred Years’ War, England’s territories in France were extensive, remnants of the Angevin Empire. In 1337, England held Aquitaine (Gascony, Guyenne), Ponthieu, and Calais (captured 1347), comprising ~30% of France, including wine-producing regions vital for trade. These were feudal holdings, with English kings paying homage to French monarchs.
During the war, England expanded dramatically: after Poitiers (1356), the Treaty of Brétigny ceded southwestern France; Henry V’s conquests (1415–1429) added Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Paris control, peaking at ~50% of France by 1429.
After the war in 1453, England lost all continental territories except Calais (held until 1558), reduced to island status. France reclaimed Normandy (1450) and Guyenne (1453), consolidating under Charles VII. This territorial loss ended English claims, fostering insularity but strengthening national identity. Maps show the dramatic contraction, with France’s unification contrasting England’s retreat.
What New Technology Developed in the Hundred Years’ War?
The Hundred Years’ War spurred significant military innovations, transitioning from medieval to early modern warfare. Key developments included:
- Longbow: English longbow tactics revolutionized archery; yew bows with 150–200 lb draw weight shot arrows 250–300 yards, penetrating armor at Crécy and Agincourt. This gave infantry an advantage over knights, influencing tactics.
- Cannon and Gunpowder: Early cannon at Crécy (1346) evolved to effective siege weapons; by Castillon (1453), French artillery (under the Bureau brothers) decimated English, marking gunpowder’s rise and siege warfare’s change.
- Plate Armor: French knights adopted fuller plate to counter longbows, but weight hindered mobility in mud, as at Agincourt.
- Handheld Firearms: Early hand cannons and arquebuses appeared late, precursor to gunpowder armies.
- Fortifications: Improved bastions and star forts emerged, but war saw more field battles.
These technologies shifted from knightly dominance to infantry and artillery, influencing Renaissance warfare.
Detailed Battle Summary: Key Engagements of the Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War featured numerous battles; this very detailed summary focuses on major ones, providing in-depth accounts of tactics, key moments, and outcomes.
Battle of Sluys (June 24, 1340): Naval Dominance
Edward III’s fleet (150–200 ships) confronted Philip VI’s 213 vessels off Sluys, Flanders. English archers rained arrows from higher decks, while grapples allowed boarding. French chained ships hindered maneuver; English broke lines, capturing 166 French ships. Casualties: French ~16,000–18,000 dead (including admirals); English ~4,000. This gave England Channel control, enabling invasions.
Battle of Crécy (August 26, 1346): Longbow Triumph
Edward III (12,000–16,000) faced Philip VI (30,000–40,000) near Crécy-en-Ponthieu. English dismounted on a hill, longbowmen flanks protected by wagons and pits. French crossbowmen (Genoese mercenaries) advanced but were outranged by longbows and retreated under rain-soaked strings. French knights charged 15–16 times through mud, mowed down by arrows (penetrating mail at 200 yards). Nightfall ended slaughter; casualties: French 1,542 nobles dead (total ~12,000), English ~300. Victory boosted English morale, leading to Calais siege.
Battle of Poitiers (September 19, 1356): Black Prince’s Glory
Edward the Black Prince (6,000) raided from Bordeaux, facing John II (16,000) near Poitiers. English on a hill with vineyard and hedge cover; longbowmen decimated French dismounted charges. A flanking cavalry under Captal de Buch routed French; John captured. Casualties: French ~2,500 dead, 3,500 captured (including king); English ~200. Ransom bankrupted France, leading to Jacquerie revolt.
Battle of Agincourt (October 25, 1415): Henry’s Masterpiece
Henry V (6,000–9,000) faced Charles d’Albret’s 12,000–36,000 near Agincourt. English longbowmen staked positions in muddy narrows between woods. French cavalry charge foundered in mud; dismounted knights advanced, compacted under arrows, suffocating in piles. English counterattacked with axes; casualties: French ~6,000–10,000 dead; English ~112–600. Victory enabled Henry’s conquests, Treaty of Troyes.
Siege of Orléans (October 12, 1428–May 8, 1429): Joan’s Miracle
English besieged Orléans with 5,000; French garrison (2,000) held. Joan of Arc arrived April 29 with supplies, inspiring attacks that captured bastilles. On May 7, Joan led assault on Les Tourelles, wounded but victorious. English lifted siege May 8; casualties: English ~1,000, French ~500. Joan’s leadership reversed fortunes, leading to Charles VII’s coronation.
Battle of Castillon (July 17, 1453): Cannon’s Decisive Role
John Talbot’s 6,000 English attacked Jean Bureau’s 7,000 French at Castillon, Gascony. French entrenched with 300 cannons; Talbot’s initial charge captured outposts but faltered against artillery grape shot. French counterattacked; Talbot killed. Casualties: English ~4,000 dead; French ~100. Victory ended English holdings in France, concluding the war.
These summaries highlight the war’s tactical evolution, from longbows to cannon, and its dramatic swings.
Who Won the Hundred Years’ War?
France won the Hundred Years’ War, decisively defeating England and reclaiming all continental territories except Calais by 1453. The House of Valois, under Charles VII, overcame early losses through military reforms, Joan of Arc’s inspiration, and artillery advancements, leading to victories like Castillon. England, plagued by internal Wars of the Roses, could no longer sustain campaigns. The war ended with the Battle of Castillon on July 17, 1453, though no formal treaty marked its conclusion—hostilities simply ceased as England focused inward. France’s victory solidified its national identity and centralized monarchy, while England shifted to island defense and naval power.
Conclusion
The Hundred Years’ War endures as an epic of endurance and change in European history. From its dates (1337–1453) and causes in succession crisis to timelines of phases, maps of shifting territories, England’s pre-war holdings in Aquitaine reduced to none post-war, and technologies like longbows and cannon, this conflict’s detailed battle summaries, French victory, and significance illuminate a transformative era. Reflecting on Edward III, Henry V, Joan of Arc, Charles VII, Philip VI, and sites like Agincourt and Orléans, the war’s legacy in French nationalism and English invasions inspires reflections on rivalry’s cost. As a chapter in medieval warfare, it reminds us of innovation’s power in shaping nations.
