The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a military conflict between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan. Most of the battles took place in the northeastern part of present-day China. In addition to land battles, it was also a brutal naval war, with artillery duels in the seas around the Korean Peninsula. This bloody conflict in the Western Pacific ended with the Treaty of Portsmouth, which shifted the balance of power in Asia and laid the foundation for the outbreak of World War I.
In this article, let’s explore how the Russo-Japanese War unfolded and why this war occurred.
“Zero World War”
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was already a major power with vast territories stretching across Eastern Europe and Central Asia, while Japan was considered the dominant force in Asia.
Therefore, the Russo-Japanese War attracted global attention, and its consequences continued to be felt even after the conflict ended in 1905.
Many scholars argue that this war set the stage for World War I and even World War II, as the core issues in the first war also emerged in the two subsequent conflicts. Some even refer to it as the “Zero World War” because it occurred less than a decade before World War I broke out.
Causes of the Russo-Japanese War
In 1904, the Russian Empire, under Tsar Nicholas II, was one of the largest territorial powers in the world. However, with the port of Vladivostok in Siberia often frozen in the winter, Russia needed a warm-water port in the Pacific for trade and as a base for its growing navy.
Tsar Nicholas set his sights on the Korean Peninsula and Liaodong, an area that is now part of China. Russia had leased Port Arthur on the Liaodong Peninsula from China, but wanted full control of the region.
Meanwhile, Japan was concerned about Russia’s influence in the area since the First Sino-Japanese War (1895). During that conflict, Russia had provided military support to the Qing Dynasty of China, making Japan wary of Russia.
Initially, Japan sought an agreement, offering to cede control of Manchuria (northeastern China) to Russia while keeping control of Korea. However, Russia rejected this and insisted that the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, above the 39th parallel, be neutral.
When negotiations failed, Japan decided to go to war, launching a surprise attack on the Russian navy at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904.
The Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War
Japan officially declared war on Russia on the same day as the attack on Port Arthur, which was considered Russia’s main naval base in the region. However, the Russian leadership only received notification of Japan’s intentions hours after the attack had already begun.
Tsar Nicholas, reassured by his advisors that Japan would not dare challenge Russia militarily, was unprepared for the surprise action, even though negotiations between the two sides had broken down earlier.
Notably, at the time, international law did not require an official declaration of war before launching an attack. This regulation was only introduced after the Second Hague Peace Conference in 1907, two years after the Russo-Japanese War had ended.
The Battle of Port Arthur
The Imperial Japanese Navy’s attack on the Russian Far East Fleet at Port Arthur was designed to incapacitate the Russian forces.
Under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese navy deployed torpedo boats to attack Russia’s warships, inflicting serious damage on three of Russia’s largest ships: the Tsesarevich, Retvizan, and Pallada.
The following day, the Battle of Port Arthur officially began. Although most of the Russian Far East Fleet was sheltered in port, the attacks caused the Russians to hesitate, unwilling to take the battle to the open sea, despite Japan’s unsuccessful attempt to blockade the port.
However, Russian ships attempting to escape the port also faced heavy losses. On April 12, 1904, the battleships Petropavlovsk and Pobeda left the port but struck mines as they sailed out. Petropavlovsk sank, while Pobeda returned to port severely damaged.
Russia retaliated by laying mines, which caused significant damage to two Japanese warships. Nevertheless, Japan maintained the upper hand at Port Arthur, continuing to heavily shell the port area, putting enormous pressure on the Russian forces.
The Battle of Liaoyang
After several failed land assaults on Russian fortifications, Japan’s persistence eventually paid off.
In late August 1904, Russian reinforcements from the north, sent to support the fleet at Port Arthur, were pushed back by the Japanese in the Battle of Liaoyang. From newly captured positions near the port area, Japanese artillery relentlessly bombarded Russian ships anchored in the bay.
By the end of 1904, the Japanese Navy had sunk the entire Russian Pacific Fleet and had taken control of strategic positions, including a hilltop fort overlooking the port.
In early January 1905, General Anatoly Stessel, the commander of the garrison at Port Arthur, decided to surrender. This decision shocked both the Japanese and the Russian commanders, as he believed the port could no longer be defended after suffering heavy and humiliating losses.
Japan had scored a significant victory in the war. Stessel was later charged with treason and sentenced to death, although he was later pardoned.
The Russian Navy continued to suffer heavy losses in the Battle of the Yellow Sea, forcing the imperial leadership to send the Baltic Fleet to the area for reinforcements.
The Russo-Japanese War in Manchuria and Korea
With Russian forces dispersed and morale weakened, Japan’s army began to seize control of the Korean Peninsula after landing at Incheon (now in South Korea). Within two months, Japan had taken Seoul and the entire peninsula.
In late April 1904, Japanese forces began planning an attack on the Russian-controlled region of Manchuria in northeastern China. In the first major land battle, the Battle of the Yalu River in May 1904, the Japanese successfully attacked the Russian Eastern Defense Army, forcing them to retreat to Port Arthur.
During the harsh winter in Manchuria, sporadic battles took place. The next land battle began on February 20, 1905, when Japanese forces attacked the Russian army at Mukden. The brutal fighting lasted for several days.
By employing tactics that pushed the Russian forces back on both flanks, the Japanese eventually forced the Russians to retreat completely. By March 10, after three weeks of fighting, the Russian army had suffered heavy losses and was driven back to the north of Mukden.
The Battle of Tsushima
Although Japan achieved a significant victory in the Battle of Mukden, they too suffered heavy losses. Ultimately, it was the navy that helped Japan secure victory in the war
In May 1905, Russia’s Baltic Fleet finally arrived as reinforcements after a nearly 20,000-mile journey, a monumental task in the early 20th century. However, they faced a major challenge in crossing the Sea of Japan to reach Vladivostok, as Port Arthur was no longer operational.
Russia decided to travel by night to avoid detection, but the plan failed when their hospital ships burned bright lights in the darkness, allowing the Japanese to spot them. Once again, under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese Navy intercepted the Russian fleet and engaged them in the Battle of Tsushima on the night of May 27, 1905.
By the end of the next day, Russia had lost eight battleships and over 5,000 soldiers. Only three of their ships made it to Vladivostok. This decisive victory forced Russia to seek a peace settlement.
The Treaty of Portsmouth
Finally, the Russo-Japanese War was a particularly brutal conflict, foreshadowing the global wars to come. The total casualties for both sides are estimated to have exceeded 150,000, and around 20,000 Chinese civilians also died.
Many of these civilian deaths were attributed to the harsh tactics employed by the Russian army in Manchuria. Journalists reporting on the war claimed that Russian forces had looted, burned down villages, and even raped and killed women living there.
The war ended with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, during the spring and summer of 1905.
On behalf of Russia, negotiator Sergei Witte, a minister in Tsar Nicholas’s government, participated in the talks. Japan was represented by Baron Komura, a former Harvard graduate. As a mediator, Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Consequences of the Russo-Japanese War
Although Japan won a decisive victory in the war, the cost was extremely high: the national treasury was nearly depleted.
This left Japan with little leverage in the negotiations, contrary to many expectations. According to the terms of the treaty, signed by both parties on September 5, 1905, Russia ceded control of Port Arthur to Japan, while retaining the northern half of Sakhalin Island, off Russia’s Pacific coast (the southern half would remain Russian after World War II).
Notably, President Theodore Roosevelt sided with Tsar Nicholas in refusing to pay reparations to Japan. This led Japan to accuse the U.S. of fraud, resulting in several days of anti-American protests in Tokyo. This event later caused Japan to question America’s role in Asian affairs, particularly in the years leading up to World War II.
Furthermore, Russia agreed to withdraw from Manchuria and recognize Japan’s control of the Korean Peninsula. Five years later, Japan annexed Korea, an act that had significant consequences during and after World War II.
Conclusion
The series of costly and humiliating defeats in the Russo-Japanese War led to a collapse in Russian morale and increased popular resentment toward Tsar Nicholas II’s failed policies. The war acted as a catalyst for political discontent, eventually leading to the overthrow of the government in the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Although regional tensions remained unresolved, the Russo-Japanese War changed the global balance of power. It was the first time in modern history that an Asian nation defeated a European power in military conflict. The war also marked the beginning of military confrontations between global powers in the Pacific region.
