Immediately after gaining independence, Angola plunged into a brutal 26-year conflict. The independence movements that had fought for the country’s freedom now turned against each other, tearing Angola apart in a race for power. In the context of the Cold War, this conflict attracted the intervention of many world powers, further intensifying the bloodshed. The 26 years of war made the Angolan Civil War one of the most brutal conflicts in African history.
In this article, Thefactsofwar will delve into the causes, developments, and consequences of the Angolan Civil War. We will explore the role of political movements such as the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA, as well as the intervention of Cold War superpowers like the Soviet Union, the United States, Cuba, and South Africa.
The Collapse of a Common Enemy
For 13 years, Angola had been mired in a bloody war of independence against Portuguese colonial rule. Under Portuguese rule, the people of Angola were subjected to forced labor and harsh exploitation. However, driven by the wave of African nationalism, three different independence movements rose up to fight for the country’s freedom.
The first movement was the People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which pursued a Marxist-Leninist ideology and was primarily supported by the Ambundu ethnic group, led by Agostinho Neto.
The second movement was the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), a right-wing, strongly anti-communist group formed from the Kongo ethnic group.
Finally, there was the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), a Maoist-leftist movement led by Jonas Savimbi. However, Savimbi later abandoned his Maoist stance and portrayed himself as an anti-communist figure, likely to garner additional support from the United States.
Although the people of Angola had fought valiantly for a long time, events in Portugal paved the way for their independence. On April 25, 1974, Portuguese soldiers overthrew the dictatorship in Lisbon during the Carnation Revolution.
The new Portuguese government quickly negotiated with the factions in Angola to end the war. As a result, the parties signed the Alvor Agreement in January 1975, establishing a transitional government comprising the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA to prepare for Angola’s full independence on November 11, 1975.
Finally, there was the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), a Maoist-leftist movement led by Jonas Savimbi. However, Savimbi later abandoned his Maoist stance and portrayed himself as an anti-communist figure, likely to garner additional support from the United States.
Increased Foreign Intervention
By the mid-1970s, the world was still gripped by the Cold War. As the United States and the Soviet Union vied for global dominance, many developing regions became battlegrounds for their rivalry. With Angola’s future uncertain, the country quickly attracted the attention of global superpowers.
The Soviet Union saw an opportunity to establish a friendly ally and spread communism in the region. Sharing Marxist-Leninist ideology, the MPLA became the beneficiary of Soviet support. Reports indicated that MPLA received millions of dollars’ worth of weapons from the Soviet Union.
Fearing the spread of communism in Angola, the United States decided to support the FNLA. However, the U.S. did not focus solely on the FNLA. To prevent an MPLA victory at all costs, the U.S. also agreed to support UNITA. Meanwhile, Zaire, under the leadership of Mobutu—an ardent U.S. ally and fierce anti-communist—also wanted a friendly regime on its western border. Mobutu sent 1,200 Zairean soldiers to support the FNLA.
China, with ambitions to break free from the Soviet shadow and assert itself as a global power, also joined the fray. In 1975, China sent 112 military advisors and provided 450 tons of weapons to the FNLA.
South Africa, under apartheid rule, also had concerns about which faction would control Angola. The South African government supported UNITA and deployed a significant military force to Angola.
Cuba, believing that Africa was fertile ground for spreading communism, also became heavily involved. Fidel Castro provided critical support to the MPLA, sending military advisors and establishing training camps to train MPLA forces in guerrilla tactics.
With such massive foreign intervention in Angola’s situation, the three domestic factions became increasingly militarized by 1975. As the factions strengthened, mutual distrust grew. The foreign intervention acted as a catalyst, fueling the fire of war in Angola and quickly engulfing the entire country.
The First Violent Clashes
Violent clashes erupted in the capital city of Luanda in March 1975 between MPLA and FNLA forces. Attacks and counterattacks took place daily for months. By June, around 5,000 people had been killed. The following month, MPLA succeeded in driving FNLA out of the capital.
Concerned that the MPLA would quickly consolidate control of Luanda and thereby seize power in Angola, South Africa sent 1,500 soldiers to Angola to support both FNLA and UNITA. With South African support, FNLA quickly gained control of much of the southeastern part of the country. At the same time, Zaire sent about 1,000 soldiers to support FNLA.
In response to the unexpected South African intervention in Angola, Cuba took bold action to support the MPLA. Cuba launched a daring intervention campaign, sending around 18,000 soldiers to Angola.
The first major battle of the war took place on November 10, 1975. The FNLA forces, supported by South African and Zairean troops, attacked MPLA and Cuban positions near the town of Quifangondo. However, after a poorly organized and ill-coordinated attack, FNLA and its allies were trapped and faced heavy fire. Despite entering the battle with nearly three times as many troops as the MPLA, FNLA suffered heavy losses and was forced to retreat.
Just hours after the Battle of Quifangondo, Agostinho Neto, MPLA’s leader, declared Angola’s independence from Portuguese control. This early decisive victory allowed the MPLA to consolidate control in Luanda and establish itself as the de facto governing authority of Angola.
Facing a formidable opponent in the MPLA and its Cuban allies, FNLA and UNITA decided to form an alliance in November 1975.
The 1977 Coup and MPLA Purge
By the late 1970s, the fighting in Angola had become sporadic and intermittent. Most foreign forces had withdrawn from the country, except for the Cuban military.
During this period, Nito Alves, Angola’s Minister of the Interior, became a powerful figure within the MPLA and built a large base of support in the organization, known as the Nitistas. MPLA leader Agostinho Neto grew increasingly suspicious of Alves’ intentions, especially after his trip to the Soviet Union.
Neto attempted to weaken Alves’ position by dismantling the Ministry of the Interior. In response, Alves planned a coup to seize Neto during a meeting and declare himself the leader of the MPLA. However, Alves’ plan was thwarted when the location of the meeting was changed at the last moment.
Shortly afterward, the MPLA voted to expel Alves. However, a brigade of soldiers loyal to Alves attempted a coup of their own. They attacked a prison to free the Nitistas who had been detained and seized a radio station to announce the coup to the people of Angola. This attempt was quickly suppressed by Cuban forces.
After the failed coup, the MPLA carried out a brutal purge against the Nitistas. Nito Alves was executed by a firing squad. According to Amnesty International, as many as 30,000 people were killed during the purge carried out by the MPLA and Cuban forces.
In 1979, Agostinho Neto died of cancer at the age of 56. The MPLA then elected José Eduardo dos Santos as his successor.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
In the 1980s, foreign intervention in Angola surged once again. The Soviet Union sent billions of dollars’ worth of weapons to the MPLA and increased the number of Cuban troops stationed in the country. Jonas Savimbi, leader of UNITA, also succeeded in tightening relations with the United States and was invited to the White House in 1986 to meet with President Ronald Reagan.
The strengthened forces clashed in 1987 at the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, the largest battle on the African continent since World War II. The battle lasted for months, beginning when UNITA and South Africa successfully repelled a major MPLA attack. However, when UNITA and South Africa launched a counterattack, they met fierce resistance from MPLA and Cuban forces at the town of Cuito Cuanavale. The defending forces repelled several tactical assaults planned by South Africa.
The results and significance of the battle remain controversial. However, most neutral observers agree that the battle ended in a stalemate, but it had profound effects on the war and the broader region. After the battle, representatives from the MPLA, Cuba, and South Africa met in New York and signed the Tripartite Accord on December 22, 1988. This agreement led to the withdrawal of Cuban forces and the eventual end of apartheid in South Africa.
This peace treaty ended the direct intervention of South African and Cuban troops in Angola, while granting independence to Namibia. Many also believe that the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale contributed to the eventual collapse of the apartheid regime in South Africa. Nelson Mandela thanked Cuban leader Fidel Castro during a visit to Cuba in 1991, saying that the defeat of South African forces at Cuito Cuanavale ‘destroyed the myth of the invincibility of the white oppressors
Halloween Massacre
After foreign forces withdrew from Angola, the intensity of the fighting gradually decreased in the early 1990s. However, Jonas Savimbi continued to seek support from the United States and had another visit to the White House to meet President George H.W. Bush. Meanwhile, the MPLA officially abandoned Marx-Leninist ideology as the party’s political doctrine.
In 1991, José Eduardo dos Santos and Savimbi met in Lisbon to discuss the possibility of peace. The two sides signed the Bicesse Agreement, which proposed transitioning Angola to a multi-party democracy and integrating UNITA into the Angolan Armed Forces.
The first presidential election in Angola’s history took place in 1992. Dos Santos won 49% of the vote, compared to 40% for Savimbi. However, Savimbi rejected these results, accusing the election of fraud, and declared he would restart the armed struggle.
As hopes for Angola’s democracy faded, violence erupted. The new MPLA government and its supporters carried out brutal attacks against UNITA supporters. Reports indicated that government forces killed civilians and buried them in mass graves. It is estimated that around 10,000 civilians were killed in just a few days, an event later known as the Halloween Massacre.
Savimbi Continues the Armed Struggle
After the conflict reignited, UNITA quickly regained control over vast territories in Angola. However, the group was soon pushed back by government forces. The two years of fighting following the 1992 election were the most brutal and bloody of the war, with more and more civilians becoming targets of both UNITA and the government. Some estimates suggest that up to 120,000 people died in these two years.
Another peace effort was made in 1994 with the signing of the Lusaka Protocol. Similar to the Bicesse Agreement, the Lusaka Protocol aimed to implement a ceasefire and integrate UNITA into the Angolan Armed Forces. Additionally, the agreement promised to allocate government positions to senior members of UNITA. However, continued distrust led to the swift abandonment of the agreement.
Despite increasing pressure from government forces, UNITA continued to fight. A key reason for UNITA’s prolonged struggle was its control over Angola’s diamond mines. Reports indicated that UNITA earned billions of dollars through the illegal diamond trade throughout the war.
On February 22, 2002, Jonas Savimbi was killed in a clash with government forces. His death led to UNITA losing its founder, leader, and the main motivation behind its long struggle. Savimbi’s successor, who was appointed shortly thereafter, was also wounded in the same battle and died just 12 days later.
UNITA’s new leader quickly agreed to an immediate ceasefire, disbanded UNITA’s armed forces, and transformed the organization into a political party. After 26 years of bloody conflict, the Angolan Civil War finally ended.
Angolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War is estimated to have caused around one million deaths and displaced an additional four million people. The conflict crippled much of the country’s infrastructure. As a result, by the end of the war, much of the population had no access to clean water.
To this day, the MPLA and UNITA remain the two largest political parties in Angola, although the MPLA has maintained control of the country. In 2017, José Eduardo dos Santos retired after 38 years as President of Angola, and was succeeded by João Lourenço.
Angola is one of the world’s largest oil producers, and its diamonds have helped its economy become one of the fastest-growing in the world. As a result, the capital city Luanda has experienced significant development and is often ranked as one of the most expensive cities in the world for expatriates. However, Angola’s economic development is highly uneven. As of 2021, nearly half of Angola’s population still lives in extreme poverty.
The Angolan Civil War was one of the largest and most brutal proxy wars caused by the Cold War. It stands as a painful reminder of how global superpower rivalry can escalate and prolong conflict, causing immense damage to nations and vulnerable populations
Translated by: Minh Tuan
Source: thecollector.com – The Angolan Civil War: 26 Years of Fighting
